The confined compression curve (CCC) of soil and its parameters reflect the impact of management operations such as tillage, cover crops, and intercropping on the physical and mechanical properties of the soil. No research has investigated the simultaneous effect of these three factors on the CCC. Therefore, the effects of two different tillage systems, moldboard plowing (MP, conventional tillage) and Chisel plowing (CP, reduced tillage), combined with cover crop (CC) and without cover crop (NC) (i.e., planting Lathyrus sativus as/without cover crop) and three cropping systems (summer squash (Cucurbita pepo), green bean (Phaseolus vulgaris), and their intercropping) were investigated on soil compaction characteristics. Next, the CCC of the soil was measured, and its parameters were derived. In MP-CC treatment compared to MP-NC, the compression index (0.43) decreased and pre-compression stress increased by 19%. The low organic matter in NC-summer squash treatment reduced the swelling index (soil mechanical resilience) compared to other treatments in the ranges of 4.76-33%. Besides, MP increased the loading swelling index compared to CP by 33%. Overall, the best management was the application of the CP-CC under intercropping of summer squash with green beans because it reduced the soil compaction. Moreover, CP improved the soil’s physical-mechanical properties.

The so-called reduced tillage is one the most important management practices for soil and water conservation. In order to study the effect of reduced tillage on energy productivity and wheat yield in Kalpoush region of Shahrood, a randomized complete blocks design (RCBD) experiment with sunflower-wheat rotation was conducted having five treatments and four replicates. The treatments were consisted of Chisel plowing at spring + disking (T1), moldboard plowing +disking (T2), reduced tillage with disk harrow (T3), disk plowing + disking (T4) and Chisel plowing at autumn +disking (T5). Sunflower was planted at May 2008 and 2011. After harvesting at October 2008 and 2011, all plots were disked. Wheat was planted at November 2008 and 2011 and harvested at July 2009 and 2012. The results showed that there was no significant difference among the treatments (P<5%). In 2009 the maximum (1708 kg/ha) and minimum (1412 kg/ha) crop yield were belonged to T5 and T3 treatments, respectively. In 2011, the maximum (1638 kg/ha) and minimum (1388 kg/ha) yield was obtained from T5 and T2 treatments, respectively. Further data analysis showed that soil water content and wheat yield differences are not significant among the treatments (P<5%). The maximum and minimum soil moisture and wheat yield related to Chisel and moldboard ploughs, respectively. Maximum and minimum energy productivity was related to disk harrow and moldboard ploughs, respectively. Chisel plugging increased the wheat yield. Soil inversion index difference was significant among the treatments (P<1%). Maximum and minimum soil inversion index related to moldboard and Chisel ploughs, respectively. Considering disk harrow advantages and results of this experiment, for wheat production it may be recommended that plowing can be replaced by disk harrow, disk harrowing for seedbed preparation is sufficient, and plowing isn’t required.

In order to manage cost reduction in saline land under wheat cultivation, a research was carried out as a split plot arranged in a randomized complete block design with three replications. The main factor included three soil moisture percentages during the initial plowing (10, 15, and 20%) and secondary factor was four methods of land preparation and sowings (non application of Chisel piler + sowing with flat planter, non application of Chisel piler + sowing with furrow planter, application of Chisel piler + sowing with flat planter and application of Chisel piler + sowing with furrow planter). In this research, before applying the secondary factor, a 24-blade disc was used for the initial plowing of the land. The results showed that the highest weight and volume of clods were found when non application of Chisel piler with 20% soil moisture and the lowest one when Chisel piler was applied with 10% soil moisture. The highest seed germination was with application of Chisel piler + furrow planter and humidity of 20% and the lowest value was with non application of Chisel piler + flat planter and soil moisture of 10%. The highest grain yield was obtained with application of Chisel piler + furrow planter by 4593 kg/ha and the lowest value was obtained by 2797 kg/ha under non application of Chisel piler and flat planter. In general, the results showed that the use of Chisel piler and furrow planter with 20% soil moisture had a positive effect on improving germination, physiological and yield characteristics of wheat in saline lands, and it can be taken into consideration by farmers.

Tillage systems influence soil physical, chemical and biological characteristics which in turn may alter, root characteristics, growth, and development. A three year study was conducted to investigate the effects of seven tillage systems on some soil (fine-loamy mixed, Typic Haplocambids) physical characteristics and wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) root morphology. Tillage treatments included moldboard plowing + disking (MD) as conventional tillage, Chisel plowing + disk (CD), Chisel plowing + rotary tilling (CR), Chisel plowing (twice) + disking (2CD), plowing with a khishchi (a regional rigid cultivator) (KD), as non-inversion methods, and till planting with cultivator combined drill (TP), and no-tillage (NT) as direct drilling methods. Soil texture, bulk density (BD), organic matter (OM) and compactness (CI) were determined. At the depths 0-0.1, 0.1-0.2, 0.2-0.3 and 0.3- 0.4m, root mass density (RMD) was obtained, root length density (RLD) was determined and average root diameter (RD), surface area density (RSD), and root fineness (RF) were calculated. A randomized complete block design consisting of four blocks (replications) was used. For all treatments, the upper layer (0-0.lm) contained a higher quantity of RMD, RLD and RSD, but the reverse was observed for the lower layer (0.3-0.4m). The upper layer (0-0. lm) contained almost 46% of the total RMD (average of all treatments), while the second (0.1-0.2m) the third (0.2-0.3m) and fourth (0.3-0.4m) depths contained 23, 18.5 and 12.5% of the total RMD, respectively. The average RLD of four depths for MD, CD, CR and 2CD were significantly (P  £ 10)higher than KD, TP and NT systems (24.9, 25.1, 24.2, and 23.8, as compared with 22.3,21.8 and 21.6km m-3 , respectively). Results of this study showed that, for the arid soils of central Iran, with weak structure and low organic matter content, as the number of tillage operations increased, root morphological characteristics improved.

The effect of different tillage methods on wheat yield in Iran's dryland conditions has been investigated in several studies. Most of the conducted studies only cover a small area (field experiments in one area), which in some cases have contradictory and incomplete results. The purpose of this research is to investigate the effect of conservation tillage (reduced tillage and no tillage) on dryland wheat yield using domestic studies with meta-analysis method. For this purpose, articles, research reports and student thesis between 1991 and 2021 were reviewed using key keywords related to tillage in the dryland wheat. Finally, after quality control, 29 studies were selected to compare minimum tillage method with conventional tillage and 22 studies were selected to compare no-tillage with conventional tillage using a random model. Based on the results, according to the effect size in the method of minimum tillage (SMD = +0.42) and no tillage (SMD = -0.43), it can be concluded that the minimum tillage method has increased wheat yield (+1.44%) and no-tillage method has decreased wheat yield (-7.7%) compared to conventional tillage method. It is suggested in dry lands, that one of the minimum tillage methods includes: 1- plowing with combinated tiller (Chisel plow equipped with roller), 2- plowing with Chisel-packer and 3-plowing with Chisel plow + disk should be used instead of the conventional tillage (moldboard ploughing + disc + leveler) by observing plant rotation.

In order to study the possibility of reduced tillage methods in Wheat planting after Potato, a field experiment was conducted on a sandy clay loam soil in the Tajarak Agricultural Research Station located in 70km Northeast of Hamedan. A randomized complete block design experiment with 8 tillage treatments (consisted of 1. Moldboard plowing + Twice disking + Leveler 2. Chisel plowing + Once disking + Leveler 3. Six bottoms plow + Once disking + Leveler 4. Once disking + Leveler 5. Sweeping + Leveler 6. Six bottoms plow + Leveler 7. Chisel plowing + Leveler 8. Leveler) was performed in 3 replication during 2 years (2001-2 and 2002-3). In this study, the machine parameters of forward speed, tractor drive wheel slip, working depth, field efficiency and theoretical and effective field capacity, as well as crop parameters of grain, straw yield and harvesting index, were measured or calculated. It was noted the method of disking + leveler after potato harvesting was for wheat planting. However if sweep used after harvesting potato, only leveler can be suggested as the most suitable method.

In thus study, field efficiency and cost of plowing and disking in Kermanshah was determined. The universal 650 tractor was used for the study. Two methods of data gathering were applied; 1. An operator filled out questionnaire before the operation started. 2. Some parameters were measured while operation took place.Analytical results showing the plowing field efficiency was ranged between 3675% in different field sizes; however, for the field size bigger than four hectare the field efficiency was the same value. For the disking, field efficiency was between 50-75%. These values were lower than values presented by the ASAE standards. Cost of plowing and disking per hectare was 32988 Rials and 8297 Rials respectively. The investment interest had the highest percentage of tractor cost. If one uses a tractor for 900 to 1560 hours annally, the fixed cost can be 49% of total cost.There are ways of preservation which increase shelf life of food products including olives.One of the most valuable fruits Because of the limitation of harvesting time and deteriorability of olive, especially in tropical area. It must be conserved and distributed in whole of our country: Olive fruit (Zard, Sevillana and Manzanila variety) were processed as "Spanish green olive". The treatment included a first step at ligh pH (Lye treatment), a lactic acid Fermentation and a final period of conservation.The results of two years showed that reducing of pH in the samples with starter were considerably higher than without starter. After two month pH of samples with starter reduced from 6.75 to 4.02-4.10 in the first year and from 7.18 to 4.13 in the second year and also acidity of samples with starter reached from zero to 0.14-0.26 percent in the first year and from zero to 0.25-0.45 percent in the second year.Differences of data between 2 years can probably related to harvesting time, amount of sugar in olive, condition and way of bittering, temperature of incubation and amount of starter.Olive is highly susceptible to deteriorative agents in postharvest situations. Canning is considered to be one of the preservative methods which can prolong storage life of olive by maintaining its quality.In this investigation three varieties of olive namely:Zard, Sevillana and Mamzanila were processed and canned following bitterness removal, lye treatment and lactic acid fermentation steps. Canned olives were treated with or without starter and effect of starter on pH value, acidity and fermentation time was measured in two consecutive years.Results indicated that in samples with starter decrease in pH value in the first and second year washingher (6.75 to 4.02 and 7.18 to 3.68) as compared to samples without starter (6.75 to 5.1 and 7.18 to 4.13)Acidity value for samples with starter in the first had increased from zero to 0.14 and 0.25 percent, and in second year from zero to 0.25 to 0.45 percent. Whereas in samples without starter acidity increased from zero to 0.05 and 0.06 percent in the first year and from zero to 0.3 and 0.45 percent in the second year.The differences in values of pH and acidity obtained in two consecutive years can be attributed to the differences in the harvesting time and sugar content of fruit and also shortcomings in conduction of experiments.

Drafts of major primary tillage implements were measured in a clay loam soil using a tension loadcell. Implements consisted of a moldboard, a disk and a Chisel plow each equipped with one tillage unit. A photoelectric speed sensor was used for actual forward speed measurements. During the study, the effects of forward speed and tillage depth on draft requirements were investigated. A general regression equation was developed to predict the specific draft of these implements as based on the Standard ASAE, D497.5. Results of statistical analysis indicated a significant increase in draft for all the three implements with an increase in depth of operation. The values of specific draft for the three tested tillage implements were significantly affected by forward speed. Coefficients of specific draft equations were determined through regression analysis. Specific draft equation coefficients (A, B and C) were obtained as: 256.26, 2.28 and12.11 from moldboard plow; 152.28, 3.79 and 9.66 for disk plow; and 26.9, 12.18 and 0.13 for Chisel plow respectively. High values of R-square (R2) for specific draft equations in the case of each implement showed that the models are able to present a good prediction of the implements' required draft.

Conservation tillage reduces soil erosion, but there might be a concern it that for a few years it might reduce crop yield and increase plant diseases. In order to study the effects of different tillage methods on potato yield and the severity and rate of infection of the main soil-borne diseases of potato (Fusarium wilt, dry rot and common scab), an experiment was conducted in the form of a strip plot statistical design based on completely randomized blocks with three replications, where the horizontal factor were tillage methods: 1- plowing with a moldboard plow (Conventional method), 2- Reduced tillage with a Chisel plow, 3- plowing with a disc plow and 4- Reduced tillage with a Chisel packer, and the vertical factor were: collection and preservation of plant residues. The results indicated that in the first year, the highest yield of potatoes related to conventional tillage method. However, in the third year of the experiment, the highest yield of potatoes was show in obtain from reduced tillage method with a Chisel packer. The effects of tillage methods on potato soil-borne diseases (Fusarium wilt, dry rot and scab) was not significant. Reduced tillage comparing to the conventional tillage method, not only did not reduce the yield of the crop and didn’t increase the soil-borne diseases of potatoes, but also caused a decrease in the field traffic, operation time and fuel consumption. The suggestion is that the reduced tillage with a Chisel packer can be replaced with the conventional tillage using moldboard plow.

Mismanagement in rangelands and law deficiencies are among the reasons for destruction and illegal plowing of rangelands. These could lead to job insecurity of pastoralists and they experience the effects of this land conversion in their economy and living conditions. They are unable to express their wills because of poor communication skills, and not being involved in decision making processes. This study aimed to describe the most important social and ecological issues and challenges in laws and managements. Local community participation by facilitating approach and participatory action research is needed for presentation of pastoraliststo local and national decision makers. Invasion, destruction, and illegal plowing of rangelands were identified as the most concerns of pastoralists and experts in summer rangelands of Shesboloki sub tribe. In the process of surveying and analyzing these common phenomena in rangelands and with setting up social facilitating workshops, either in local communities or for natural recourses administrators and court officials,laws problems were identified as the first motive for this problem. For instance some problems in commission of the article one and its complaints,"Commission of the article 34, the religious law of cultivation".Incompetence of punishments laws in natural resources and then management and structure problems such as range survey and range separation in common rangelands of peasants and nomads. Procrastination in following the subject by natural resources administration and courts, inefficiency of court systems in natural resources subjects, the problems of low enforcement and sentences, and at the end,the general policies of government, unprofessional words of government officials and the interference of some local government officials. In this essay the second group of challenges (management and structure) are discussed.